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Functions Synthesis of neurotransmitter acetylcholine precursor molecule for neurotransmitter acetylcholine acetylcholine involved in many functions such as memory and muscle control Used in the synthesis of constructional components of cell membranes essential for structural integrity and signaling roles of cell membranes Deficiency Mild fatigue insomnia impaired ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine memory problems nerve-muscle imbalances deficiency of folic acid Severe infertility hypertension growth impairment bone abnormalities cirrhosis of liver, fatty liver (Fischer LM et al. 2010) muscle damage (Fischer LM et al. 2010) hemorrhagic kidney necrosis Characteristics water-soluble usually grouped with B vitamins quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation Required nutrients for choline to obtain all three methyl groups: vitamins B3 folic acid methionine (amino acid) found in head groups of phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin two classes of phospholipid that are abundant in cell membranes Good Sources Natural eggs liver milk cruciferous vegetables eg: broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, collard greens, kale, cress, bok choy, etc. Food Quantity mg Beef liver 3 oz 400 Egg 1 large 113+ Milk, 1% fat 1 cup 43 Beef, 80% lean, ground 3 oz 69 Cod Fish 3 oz 71 Peanuts 1/2 cup 38 Cauliflower 4 oz 44 Kidney beans, cooked 1/2 cup 27 Tofu 1/4 cup 36 Quinoa, uncooked 1/4 cup 30 Artificial Lecithin (food additive derived from soy or egg yolks) Choline Chloride (supplement) Notes Recognized as an essential nutrient since 1998 established AI by Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine Human body can synthesizes some choline dietary choline requirements vary among individuals some individuals need more than AI and some need less Only 2% of US postmenopausal women consume the recommended intake for choline (2005 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) Increased need during pregnancy Possible anti-inflammatory (ATTICA study, 2004) May reduce symptoms of allergic rhinitis (Das S et al. 2005) Little or no evidence exists to demonstrate any effect on reducing body fat Adequate Intakes (AI) Males (14 yrs. and older) 550 mg Females (19 yrs. and older) 425 mg Pregnant females 450 mg Lactating females 550 mg Children 220-375 mg Infants 125 mg Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) Males (19 yrs. and older) 3500 mg Females (19 yrs. and older) 3500 mg Pregnant females 3500 mg Lactating females 3500 mg Children 1000-3000 mg Intakes above UL may lead to negative health consequences. sweating salivation hypotension hepatotoxicity colon adenomas (polyps) in women (Nurses Health Study) Supplementation vegetarians and vegans or those that do no not eat whole eggs endurance athletes alcoholics or those that drink a lot of alcohol Most American's do not meet the their AI Some have suggested this can be attributed to the anti-cholesterol propaganda